The new ruling blurs the lines between corporate and individual contributions in political campaigns. It also strikes down part of the 2002 McCainFeingold. Indian Institute of Banking Finance Indian Institute of Banking Finance Indian Institute of Banking Finance Indian Institute of Banking Finance. Corporation Wikipedia. A corporation is a company or group of people authorized to act as a single entity legally a person and recognized as such in law. Early incorporated entities were established by charter i. Most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations come in many different types but are usually divided by the law of the jurisdiction where they are chartered into two kinds by whether they can issue stock or not, or by whether they are formed to make a profit or not. Where local law distinguishes corporations by the ability to issue stock, corporations allowed to do so are referred to as stock corporations, ownership of the corporation is through stock, and owners of stock are referred to as stockholders or shareholders. Corporations not allowed to issue stock are referred to as non stock corporations those who are considered the owners of a non stock corporation are persons or other entities who have obtained membership in the corporation and are referred to as a member of the corporation. Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for profit or not are referred to as for profit and not for profit corporations, respectively. Corporate Finance Books Pdf' title='Corporate Finance Books Pdf' />Corporate. Global enforcement focuses. Global Fraud Survey. Journal of CORPORATE FINANCE ELSEVIER Journal of Corporate Finance 3 1997 189220 Leadership structure Separating the CEO and Chairman of the Board 1. Search the worlds most comprehensive index of fulltext books. My library. I. Alphabetical Listing of Books A A Backward Place Ruth Prawer Jhabwala A Bend in the Ganges Manohar Malgonkar A Bend in the River V. S. Naipaul. There is some overlap between stocknon stock and for profitnot for profit in that not for profit corporations are always non stock as well. A for profit corporation is almost always a stock corporation, but some for profit corporations may choose to be non stock. To simplify the explanation, whenever Stockholder or Shareholder is used in the rest of this article to refer to a stock corporation, it is presumed to mean the same as member for a non profit corporation or for a profit, non stock corporation. Corporate Finance Books Pdf' title='Corporate Finance Books Pdf' />Registered corporations have legal personality and are owned by shareholders23 whose liability is generally limited to their investment. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity. In most circumstances, a shareholder may also serve as a director or officer of a corporation. In American English, the word corporation is most often used to describe large business corporations. In British English and in the Commonwealth countries, the term company is more widely used to describe the same sort of entity while the word corporation encompasses all incorporated entities. In American English, the word company can include entities such as partnerships that would not be referred to as companies in British English as they are not a separate legal entity. Despite not being individual human beings, corporations, as far as the law is concerned, are legal persons, and have many of the same rights and responsibilities as natural persons do. For example, a corporation can own property, and can sue or be sued. Corporations can exercise human rights against real individuals and the state,56 and they can themselves be responsible for human rights violations. Corporations can be dissolved either by statutory operation, order of court, or voluntary action on the part of shareholders. Insolvency may result in a form of corporate failure, when creditors force the liquidation and dissolution of the corporation under court order,8 but it most often results in a restructuring of corporate holdings. Corporations can even be convicted of criminal offenses, such as fraud and manslaughter. However, corporations are not considered living entities in the way that humans are. Late in the 1. While not a corporation, this new type of entity became very attractive as an alternative for corporations not needing to issue stock. In Germany, the organization was referred to as Gesellschaft mit beschrnkter Haftung or Gmb. H. In the last quarter of the 2. Century this new form of non corporate organization became available in the United States and other countries, and was known as the limited liability company or LLC. Since the Gmb. H and LLC forms of organization are technically not corporations even though they have many of the same features, they will not be discussed in this article. HistoryeditThe word corporation derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a body of people. By the time of Justinian reigned 5. Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names universities, corpus or collegium. These included the state itself the Populus Romanus, municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, and, in general, to perform legal acts through representatives. Private associations were granted designated privileges and liberties by the emperor. Entities which carried on business and were the subjects of legal rights were found in ancient Rome, and the Maurya Empire in ancient India. In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the Pope and the City of London Corporation. The point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity. The alleged oldest commercial corporation in the world, the Stora Kopparberg mining community in Falun, Sweden, obtained a charter from King Magnus Eriksson in 1. In medieval times, traders would do business through common law constructs, such as partnerships. Whenever people acted together with a view to profit, the law deemed that a partnership arose. Early guilds and livery companies were also often involved in the regulation of competition between traders. MercantilismeditThe progenitors of the modern corporation were the chartered companies, such as the Dutch East India Company VOC and the Hudsons Bay Company, which were created to lead the colonial ventures of European nations in the 1. Acting under a charter sanctioned by the Dutch government, the Dutch East India Company defeated Portuguese forces and established itself in the Moluccan Islands in order to profit from the Europea demand for spices. Investors in the VOC have issued paper certificates as proof of share ownership, and were able to trade their shares on the original Amsterdam Stock Exchange. Cracker Barrel Rising Star Program. Shareholders are also explicitly granted limited liability in the companys royal charter. In England, the government created corporations under a royal charter or an Act of Parliament with the grant of a monopoly over a specified territory. The best known example, established in 1. East India Company of London. Queen Elizabeth I granted it the exclusive right to trade with all countries to the east of the Cape of Good Hope. Some corporations at this time would act on the governments behalf, bringing in revenue from its exploits abroad. Subsequently, the Company became increasingly integrated with English and later British military and colonial policy, just as most corporations were essentially dependent on the Royal Navys ability to control trade routes. Labeled by both contemporaries and historians as the grandest society of merchants in the universe, the English East India Company would come to symbolize the dazzlingly rich potential of the corporation, as well as new methods of business that could be both brutal and exploitative. On 3. 1 December 1.